Material Flow Analysis as a Decision Supporting tool for Faecal Sludge Resource Recovery: Mathematical formulation and quantification

Isabela T. Mkude, Tolly Mbwette, Richard Kimwaga, Sara Gabrielsson

Abstract


In this work, a conceptual framework for faecal sludge (FS) management and resource recovery in Dar es Salaam city was developed. Material Flow Analysis (MFA) approach was used to assess and quantify the current materials and nutrients to support on decisions for nutrient recovery and minimize environmental pollution in three unplanned settlements of Manzese, Keko and Kipawa in Dar es Salaam city. Nitrogen and Phosphorus were chosen as indicators for the evaluation of the process. The results showed that about 75% of the Dar es Salaam city population relies on pit latrines and 15% connected to septic tanks, translating to a large amount of faecal sludge being contained onsite. The situational analysis study on faecal sludge management (FSM) showed that the collection, treatment and proper disposal of FS are the major challenges that pose risks to public health. Currently, 57% of faecal sludge generated in Dar es Salaam is disposed to the environment inappropriately. Onsite Sanitation Systems in all study areas are the main polluters, discharging large quantity of nutrients to the environment. About 37.7% of faecal sludge is with large amount of nutrients emptied from onsite sanitation systems discharged to the environment and through seepage to the groundwater.

Keywords: Faecal sludge; Material flow analysis; Resource recovery; unplanned settlements.


Full Text:

PDF

References


Afolabi O.O.D. and Sohail M. (2017). Microwaving human faecal sludge as a viable sanitation technology option for treatment and value recovery: A critical review. Journal of Environmental

Management 187: 401-415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.10.067

Allesch A. and Brunner P.H. (2015). Material Flow Analysis as a decision: A literature review. Wiley Online Library, 19(5): 753–

https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12354

Andriani D., Wresta A., Saepudin A. and Prawara B. (2015). A review of recycling of human excreta to energy through biogas

generation: Indonesia case. Energy Procedia, 68: 219–225.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.03.250

Atwijukye O., Kulabako R., Niwagaba C. and Sugden S. (2018). Low cost faecal sludge dewatering and carbonisation for production of fuel briquettes. 41st WEDC International Conference, Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya. Transformation Towards Sustainable and Resilient WASH services, (Sept.), 1–7.

Brandes K., Schoebitz L., Kimwaga R., and Strande L. (2015). Shit Flow Diagram report for Dar es Salaam, SFD Promotion Initiative

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Final Report.

Cencic O. and Rechberger H. (2008). Material Flow Analysis with software STAN. Environ. Eng. Management, 18(1): 3-7.

Chaggu E.J. (2004). Sustainable environmental protection using modified pit latrines. PhD Thesis, Department of Environmental

Technology, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.

de Langen M. (2007). Engineering Economics: Hypothesis Testing. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands.

Diener S., Semiyaga S., Niwagaba C.B., Muspratt A.M., Gning J.B., Mbéguéré M., Ennin J.E., Zurbrugg C. and Strande L. (2014). A value proposition: Resource recovery from faecal sludge- Can it be the driver for improved sanitation? Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 88: 32–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.04.005

Do-thu N., Morel A., Nguyen-viet H. and Pham-duc P. (2011). Assessing nutrient fluxes in a Vietnamese rural area despite

limited and highly uncertain data. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, 55(9–10): 849–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.04.008

Dongus S., Nyika D., Kannady K. and Mtasiwa D. (2009). Urban agriculture and Anopheles habitats in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Geospatial Health, 3(2): 189-210. https://doi.org/10.4081/gh.2009.220

Drechsel P., Cofie O., Fink M., Danso G., Zakari F.M. and Vasquez R. (2004). Closing the rural–urban nutrient cycle: Options for municipal waste composting in Ghana. Final scientific report submitted to IDRC (Project 100376). IWMI, Ghana.

EWURA (2014). Water and wastewater quality monitoring guidelines for water utilities. Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania.

FAO (2013). Country food statistics. FAO Rome, Italy. Available online at http://www.fao.org/statistics/en/Tanzania. Retrieved on 30th may 2019.

Gold M., Cunningham M., Bleuler M., Arnheiter R., Schönborn A., Niwagaba C., and Strande L. (2018). Operating parameters for three resource recovery options from slow-pyrolysis of faecal sludge. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 8(4): 707-717. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2018.009

Gold M., Niang S., Niwagaba C.B., Eder G., Muspratt A.M., Diop P.S. and Strande L. (2014). Results from FaME (Faecal Management Enterprises ) – can dried faecal sludge fuel the sanitation service chain? 37th WEDC International Conference,

Hanoi, Vietnam, 2014 Sustainable Water and sanitation Services for All in Fast Changing World, 1–6.

IPCC (2006). Wastewater treatment and discharge. In D. Michiel & W. Irving (Eds.), IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (5: Waste, p. 28).

Jenkins M.W., Cumming O. and Cairncross S. (2015). Pit latrine emptying behavior and demand for sanitation services in Dar Es

Salaam, Tanzania. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 12: 2588-2611; doi:10.3390/ijerph120302588

Jonsson H., Stinzing A.R., Vinneras B. and Salomon E. (2004). Guidelines on the use of urine and faeces in crop production. EcoSanRes Publication Series 2: 1-35.

Kasala S.E., Burra M.M. and Mwankenja T.S. (2016). Access to improved sanitation in informal settlements: The case of Dar es

Salaam city, Tanzania. Current Urban Studies, 4: 23-35.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/cus.2016.41003

Katukiza, A.Y. (2013). Sanitation in unsewered urban poor areas: Technology selection, quantitative microbial risk assessment and

greywater treatment. Available online at edepot.wur.nl/283065. Retrieved on 30th May 2019.

Kayombo M.C. and Mayo A.W. (2018). Assessment of microbial quality of vegetables irrigated with polluted waters in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Environmental and Ecology Research, 6(4):

–239. https://doi.org/10.13189/eer.2018.060403

Kwapinski W., Byrne C.M.P., Kryachko E., Wolfram P., Adley C., Leahy J.J., Novotny E.H. and Hayes M.H.B. (2010). Biochar

from biomass and waste. Waste Biomass Valor, 1: 177–189.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-010-9024-8

Lalander C., Diener S., Magri M.E., Zurbrügg C., Lindström A. and Vinnerås B. (2013). Faecal sludge management with the larvae

of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) - From a hygiene aspect. Science of the Total Environment, 458–460: 312–318.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.033

Leonard S., Mwegoha W. and Kihampa C. (2012). Heavy metals pollution and urban agriculture in Msimbazi River valley:

Health risks and public awareness. International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences, 2(2): 107–118.

Liu X., Li Z., Zhang Y., Feng R. and Mahmood I.B. (2014). Characterization of human manure-derived biochar and energy-balance analysis of slow pyrolysis process. Waste Management, 34(9): 1619–1626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.05.0

Malale M.P. and Munishi S. (2018). Surface water quality in the peri-urban areas in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: The case of Ng’ombe River. Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology, 37(1): 19–32.

Mara D.D. (1984). The design of ventilated improved pit latrines. TAG Technical Note, (13): 83.

Mara D.D, Lane J., Scott B. and Trouba D.(2010). Sanitation and Health. PLoS Med, 7(11): https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000363

Marwa L.I. (2017). Development of potential predictors for faecal sludge characterization on a community scale: The case study of

Mlalakua community, Dar es Salaam. MSc. Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Meinzinger F. (2010). Resource efficiency of urban sanitation systems: A comparative assessment using material and energy flow analysis. Technischen Universität Hamburg- Harburg, Germany.

Montangero A. (2006). Material Flow Analysis for environmental sanitation planning in developing countries. PhD Thesis, Leopold- Franzens-University Innsbruck, Austria.

Montangero A. (2009). Material flow analysis as a tool for sustainable sanitation planning in developing countries: Case study of Arba Minch, Ethiopia. Water Sci Technol., 59(10): 1911-1920. doi:10.2166/wst.2009.189.

Montangero A. and Belevi H. (2007). Assessing nutrient flows in septic tanks by eliciting expert judgement: A promising method in the context of developing countries. 41: 1052–1064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.10.036

Montangero A. and Belevi H. (2008). An approach to optimise nutrient management in environmental sanitation systems despite

limited data. 88: 1538–1551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.07.033

Montangero A., Cau L.N., Anh N.V., Tuan V.D., Nga P.T. and Belevi H. (2007). Optimising water and phosphorus management in the urban environmental sanitation system of Hanoi, Vietnam.

Science of the Total Environment, 384(1–3): 55–66.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.05.032

Msuya N., Masanja E. and Temu A.K. (2011). Environmental burden of charcoal production and use in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2: 1364-1369

doi:10.4236/jep.2011.210158

Munamati M., Nhapi I. and Misi S. (2016). Exploring the determinants of sanitation success in Sub-Saharan Africa. Water

Research, 103: 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.030

Mwakaboko A.S., Lugwisha E.H.J. and Kayogolo C.W. (2014). The performance of the selected waste stabilization ponds in Dar

es Salaam, Tanzania in removing heavy metals. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, 3(6): 2024–

National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2017). Basic demographic and socio-economic profile. 2012 Population and Housing

Census. Dar es Salaam: National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), Ministry of Finance, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Available online at http://tanzania.countrystat.org/fileadmin/user_upload/countrystat_fenix/congo/docs/2012 Tanzania Population and Housing Census- Basic Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile.pdf. Retrieved on 15th June 2019.

Niwagaba C., Mbeguere M. and Strande L. (2014). Faecal sludge quantification, characterization and treatment objectives. In Strande L., Ronteltap M. and Brdjanovic D. (Eds.), Faecal sludge management: System approach for implementation and operation. IWA Publishing.

Niwagaba C., Nalubega M., Vinnerås B., Sundberg C. and Jönsson H. (2009). Bench- scale composting of source-separated human

faeces for sanitation. Waste Management, 29(2): 585–589.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.06.022

Nyer B. (2012). Fuel briquette materials assessment. TechnoServe Guatemala, University of Colorado, USA.

Orner K.O. and Mihelcic J.R. (2018). A review of sanitation technologies to achieve multiple sustainable development goals that promote resource recovery. Journal of Environmental

Science: Water Research & Technology, 4: 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EW00195A

Sawio C.J. (1994). Urban agriculture and the sustainable Dar es Salaam project Cities Feeding People Series.

Schaffner, M. (2007). Applying a material flow analysis model to assess river water pollution and mitigation potentials: A case

study in the Thachin River basin, Central Thailand. PhD Thesis, Universität Bern,Switzerland.

Schoebitz L., Niwagaba C., Francis O., Bischoff F. and Strande L. (2014). FAQ: Faecal Sludge Quantification and Characterization - Kampala. Sandec News, 15(January), 12–13.

Strauss M. and Montangero A. (2002). Faecal sludge management review of practices. In: Problems and initiatives. London and

Duebendorf: DFID Project R8056, Capacity Building for Effective Decentralised Wastewater Management. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science (EAWAG), Department of Water and Sanitation in

Developing Countries (SANDEC).

Tarimo I.A. (2016). Removal of wastes and re- use of treated water from Maturation Waste Stabilization Ponds (MWSPs). International Journal for Innovation Education and Research, 4(11): 31-50.

UN-Habitat (2009). Global report on human settlements: Planning sustainable cities. Retrieved from Earthscan website: www.unhabitat.org

Vijayan G., Saravanane R. and Sundararajan T. (2017). Carbon footprint analyses of wastewater treatment systems in Puducherry. Computational Water, Energy, and Environmental Engi- Neering, 6: 281- 303. https://doi.org/10.4236/cweee.2017.63019

von Sperling M. (2007). Biological wastewater treatment. Waste Stabilisation Ponds (3rd ed.). London: IWA Publishing.

Yiougo L.S.A., Koanda H., Wethe J., Luthi C.,

Yapo O. and Dapola E.D. (2011). The method of material flow analysis: A tool for selecting sustainable sanitation technology

options: The case of Pouytenga (Burkina Faso). Water Resources Management VI(145): 671-680. doi:10.2495/WRM110601


Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.